In the last few decades, tourist interactions involving wildlife, one of the activities that distinguishes ecotourism, have attracted many fans in various regions of the world. This article maps, characterizes, and presents the challenges and potentials of wildlife ecotourism in protected areas of the Lower Negro River, in the Brazilian Amazon. Through data collection in the field, seven enterprises were visited and tourist interactions with twelve different species of wildlife were recorded. The activities that visitors engage in vary according to the species they are interacting with, but include watching the animals, offering food, physical contact (petting or holding the animals), and getting into the water with them. The recorded species include the Amazon River dolphin (Inia geoffrensis), the Woolly monkey (Lagothrix lagotricha), and the Bald uakari (Cacajao calvus), which are on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species. Despite the negative impacts of these activities, they help create income for the host communities, increase the public use of protected areas, and raise awareness among visitors regarding the conservation of species and their habitats.
Alves Junior, U. J. M., Rotundo, M. M., Petrere Junior, M., Barrellla, W., & Ramires, M. A. (2020). Recreational Fishing on the Maritime Fishing Pier in Mongaguá (Brazil), Southwest Atlantic. Research, Society and Development, 9(9), e937998020. https://doi.org/10.33448/rsd-v9i9.8020
Alves, L. C. P. S., Andriolo, A., Orams, M. B., & Azevedo, A. F. (2013). Resource defence and dominance hierarchy in the boto (Inia geoffrensis) during a provisioning program. Acta Ethologica, 16(1), 9–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10211-012-0132-2
Andrade, M. C. R. (2002). Principais doenças de primatas não humanos. In: A. Andrade, S. C. Pinto, & R. S. Oliveira (Eds.), Animais de Laboratório: criação e experimentação (155-160). Editora FioCruz. https://doi.org/10.7476/9788575413869.0022
Aquino, R., Queiroz, H. L., Paim, F. P., Boubli, J. P., Mittermeier, R. A., Ravetta, A. L., Shanee, S., et al. (2022). “Cacajao calvus.” The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2022: e.T3416A210373615. Accessed 13 January 2023. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-1.RLTS.T3416A210373615.en
Azhar, E. I., Hui, D. S. C., Memish, Z. A., Drosten, C., & Zumla, A. (2019). The Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS). Infectious Disease Clinics of North America, 33(4), 891–905. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idc.2019.08.001
Boesch, C. (2008). Why do chimpanzees die in the forest? The challenges of understanding and controlling for wild ape health. American Journal of Primatology, 70, 722–726. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.20571
Brasil. (2010). Ecoturismo: orientações básicas. 2. ed. Ministério do Turismo.
Brumatti, P. N. M. (2013). O papel do turismo de observação da vida selvagem para a conservação da natureza. Revista Brasileira de Ecoturismo, 6(4), 191–206. https://doi.org/10.34024/rbecotur.2013.v6.6377
Casagrande, R. A., Pannuti, C. S., Kanamura, C., Freire, W. S., Grespan, A., & Matushima, E. R. (2014). Fatal Human herpesvirus 1 (HHV-1) infection in captive marmosets (Callithrix jacchus and Callithrix penicillata) in Brazil: clinical and pathological characterization. Pesquisa Veterinária Brasileira, 34, 1109–1114. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0100-736x2014001100013
CBI – Centre for the Promotion of Imports from Developing Countries. (2021). The European market potential for birdwatching tourism. Accessed 12 December 2022. https://www.cbi.eu/market-information/tourism/birdwatching-tourism/market-potential
Cintra, R., Sanaiotti, T. M., & Cohn-Haft, M. (2007). Spatial distribution and habitat of the Anavilhanas Archipelago bird community in the Brazilian Amazon. Biodiversity and Conservation, 16(2), 313–336. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-005-0606-x
Charity, S., & Ferreira, J. M. (2020). Wildlife Trafficking in Brazil. Traffic International.
Cousins, J. A., Sadler, J. P., & Evans, J. (2008). Exploring the role of private wildlife ranching as a conservation tool in South Africa: stakeholder perspectives. Ecology and Society, 13(2), 43. https://doi.org/10.5751/es-02655-130243
Cunha, A. A., Vieira, M. V., & Grelle, C. E. V. (2006). Preliminary observations on habitat, support use and diet in two non-native primates in an urban Atlantic Forest fragment: The capuchin monkey (Cebus sp.) and the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) in the Tijuca forest, Rio de Janeiro. Urban Ecosystems, 9(4), 351–359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-006-0005-4
Da Silva, V., Trujillo, F., Martin, A., Zerbini, A. N., Crespo, E., Aliaga-Rossel, E., & Reeves, R. (2018). Inia geoffrensis. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T10831A50358152. Accessed 13 January 2023. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T10831A50358152.en
D’cruze, N., Machado, F. C., Matthews, N., Balaskas, M., Carder, G., Richardson, V., & Vieto, R. (2017). A review of wildlife ecotourism in Manaus, Brazil. Nature Conservation, 22, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3897/natureconservation.22.17369
Destro, G. F. G., Fernandes, V., Andrade, A. F. A., De Marco, P., & Terribile, L. C. (2019). Back home? Uncertainties for returning seized animals to the source areas under climate change. Global Change Biology, 25, 3242–3253. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14760
Dias, R. (2011). A biodiversidade como atrativo turístico: o caso do turismo de observação de aves no município de Ubatuba (SP). Revista Brasileira de Ecoturismo, 4(1), 111–122. https://doi.org/10.34024/rbecotur.2011.v4.5906
Díaz-Maestre, B., Guzón-Zatarain, O., Mendieta-Veja, R., Roldán-Clarà, B., & Grano-Maldonado, M. I. (2020). The influence of tourism, ecological management practices, and the social perspective during the observation of sea lions (Zalophus californianus) (Lesson 1828) in Mazatlán, México. Biotempo, 17(2), 195–208. https://doi.org/10.31381/biotempo.v17i2.3182
Doan, T. M. (2013). Sustainable ecotourism in Amazonia: evaluation of six sites in Southeastern Peru. International Journal of Tourism Research, 15, 261–271. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.1866
Dyck, M., & Baydack, R. (2003). Vigilance behavior of polar bears (Ursus maritimus) in the context of wildlife-viewing activities at Churchill, Manitoba, Canada. Biological Conservation, 116(3), 343–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0006-3207(03)00204-0
Fennell, D. A. (2002). Ecoturismo. Contexto.
Fonseca, V. (2018). Exploração de animais silvestres pelo turismo é alvo do MPF no Amazonas. Accessed 17 February 2019. https://www.oeco.org.br/noticias/exploracao-de-animais-silvestres-pelo-turismo-e-alvo-do-mpf-no-amazonas/
Freedman, D. O., & Wilder-Smith, A. (2020). In-flight transmission of SARS-CoV-2: a review of the attack rates and available data on the efficacy of face masks. Journal of Travel Medicine, 27(8), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/taaa178
Geary A. (2018). Marketing in the Modern World: Tourism After Terrorist Attacks. Accessed 29 August 2020. https://wyoscholar.uwyo.edu/articles/thesis/Marketing_in_the_Modern_World_Tourism_After_Terrorist_Attacks/13700593
Giannecchini, J. (1993). Ecotourism: New Partners, New Relationships. Conservation Biology, 7(2), 429–432. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1993.07020429.x
G1-PR. (2016). Saúde alerta para aumento de ataques de quatis nas Cataratas do Iguaçu. Accessed 23 January 2023. https://g1.globo.com/pr/oeste-sudoeste/noticia/2016/01/saude-alerta-para-aumento-de-ataques-de-quatis-nas-cataratas-do-iguacu.html
Gordo, M., Röhe, F., Vidal, M. D., Subirá, R., Boubli, J. P., Mittermeier, R. A., & Jerusalinsky, L. (2021). Saguinus bicolor. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021: e.T40644A192551696. Accessed 24 January 2023. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T40644A192551696.en
Graham, R. T. (2004). Global whale shark tourism: a “golden goose” of sustainable and lucrative income. Shark News, 16, 8–9.
Hui, D. S., Azhar, E. I., Madani, T. A., Ntoumi, F., Kock, R., Dar, O., Ippolito, G., et al. (2020). The continuing 2019-nCoV epidemic threat of novel coronaviruses to global health - The latest 2019 novel coronavirus outbreak in Wuhan, China. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 91, 264–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2020.01.009
IBAMA – Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis. (2016). Ibama multa empresas de turismo no Amazonas por exploração ilegal de animais silvestres. Accessed 21 June 2021. http://www.ibama.gov.br/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=518
ICMBIO – Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade. (2017). Plano de Manejo do Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas. ICMBIO/MMA.
ICMBIO – Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade. (2018). Livro Vermelho da Fauna Brasileira Ameaçada de Extinção. 1. ed. ICMBio/MMA.
Karanth, K. K., Defries, R., Srivathsa, A., & Sankaraman, V. (2012). Wildlife tourists in India’s emerging economy: potential for a conservation constituency? Oryx, 46(3), 382–390. https://doi.org/10.1017/s003060531100086x
King, J. M., & Heinen, J. T. (2003). An assessment of the behavior of overwintering manatees as influenced by interactions with tourists at two sites in Central Florida. Biological Conservation, 117, 227–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2003.07.001
Macedo, M., & Castello, L. (2015). State of the Amazon: Freshwater Connectivity and Ecosystem Health. WWF Living Amazon Initiative.
Maciejewski, K., & Kerley, G. I. H. (2014). Understanding Tourists’ Preference for Mammal Species in Private Protected Areas: Is There a Case for Extralimital Species for Ecotourism? PLoS ONE, 9(2), e88192. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0088192
Maljković, A., & Côté, I. M. (2011). Effects of tourism‐related provisioning on the trophic signatures and movement patterns of an apex predator, the Caribbean reef shark. Biological Conservation, 144(2), 859–865. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2010.11.019
Malukiewicz, J., Boere, V., Fuzessy, L. F., Grativol, A. D., Oliveira e Silva, I., Pereira, L. C. M., Ruiz-Miranda, C. R., Valença, Y. M., & Stone, A. C. (2015). Natural and Anthropogenic Hybridization in Two Species of Eastern Brazilian Marmosets (Callithrix jacchus and C. penicillata). PLoS ONE, 10(6), e0127268. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0127268
Meletis, Z. A., & Harrison, E. C. (2010). Tourists and Turtles: Searching for a Balance in Tortuguero, Costa Rica. Conservation and Society, 8(1), 26–43. https://doi.org/10.4103/0972-4923.62678
Mendrone Júnior, A. (2010). Prevalência da infecção pelo citomegalovírus: a importância de estudos locais. Revista Brasileira de Hematologia e Hemoterapia, 32(1), 7–8. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1516-84842010000100004
Moorhouse, T., D’cruze, N. C., & Macdonald, D. W. (2016). Unethical use of wildlife in tourism: what’s the problem, who is responsible, and what can be done? Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 25(4), 505–516. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2016.1223087
Morand, D. (1994). Contingent valuation and Biodiversity – Measuring the user surplus of Kenyan protected areas. Biodiversity & Conservation, 3(8), 663–684. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00126859
Mossaz, A., Buckley, R. C., & Castley, J. G. (2015). Ecotourism contributions to conservation of African big cats. Journal of Nature Conservation, 28, 112–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jnc.2015.09.009
Mustika, P. L. K., Birtles, A., Welters, R., & Marsh, H. (2012). The economic influence of community-based dolphin watching on a local economy in a developing country: Implications for conservation. Ecological Economics, 79, 11–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2012.04.018
Nakamura, M., & Nishida, T. (2009). Chimpanzee tourism in relation to the viewing regulations at the Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania. Primate Conservation, 24, 85–90. https://doi.org/10.1896/052.024.0106
Newsome, D., Dowling, R., &Moore, S. (2005). Wildlife Tourism. Channel View Publications.
Neupane, D. (2020). How conservation will be impacted in the COVID-19 pandemic. Wildlife Biology, 2020(2), wlb.00727. https://doi.org/10.2981/wlb.00727
O’Connor, S., Campbell, R., Cortez, H., & Knowles, T. (2009). Whale watching worldwide: Tourism numbers, expenditures and expanding economic benefits. International Fund for Animal Welfare.
Oliveira, A. A., & Daly, D. C. (2001). Florestas do rio Negro. Companhia das Letras.
Oliveira, F. T., Silva, I. C., Matos, J. F. R., & Hara, F. A. S. (2010). Ecoturismo no rio Puraquequara: suporte para inclusão social e proteção ambiental. Sociedade & Natureza, 22(2), 283–295. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1982-45132010000200005
Orams, M. B. (1996). A conceptual model of tourist–wildlife interaction: The case for education as a management strategy. Australian Geographer, 27(1), 39–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049189608703156
Orams, M. B. (2002). Feeding wildlife as a tourism attraction: issues and impacts. Tourism Management, 23(3), 281–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0261-5177(01)00080-2
Parsons, E. C. M., Warbuton, C. A., Woods-Ballard, A., Hughes, A., & Johnston, P. (2003). The value of conserving whales: the impacts of cetacean-related tourism on the economy of rural West Scotland. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 13(5), 397–415. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/aqc.582
Paschoalinni, M., & Barbosa, B. C. (2016). Exibição turística de pirarucus (Arapaima gigas Schinz, 1822) de cativeiro na Amazônia, região do Baixo Rio Negro. Ces Revista, 30(1), 69–80.
Petrere Jr., M. (2014). Pesque-solte: lazer ou crueldade? Accessed 28 January 2023. https://cienciahoje.org.br/artigo/pesque-solte-lazer-ou-crueldade/
Pezzuti, J. C. B., Lima, J. P., Félix-Silva, D., & Begossi, A. (20100. Uses and Taboos of turtles and tortoises along Rio Negro, Amazon Basin. Journal of Ethnobiology, 30(1), 153–168. https://doi.org/10.2993/0278-0771-30.1.153
Puhakka, L., Salo, M., & Saaksjarvi, I. E. (2011). Bird diversity, birdwatching tourism and conservation in Peru: a geographic analysis. PLoS ONE, 6(11), e26786. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0026786
Ramón, C. M., & Mooser, A. (2018). Environmental impacts of tourism In Cuyabeno Wildlife Reserve, Ecuador. International Journal of Engineering Sciences & Research Technology, 7(5), 312–317. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1247018
Rodrigues, T. C. S., Díaz-Delgado, J., Catão-Dias, J. L., Carvalho, J. L., & Marmontel, M. (2018). Retrospective pathological survey of pulmonary disease in free-ranging Amazon River dolphin Inia geoffrensis and tucuxi Sotalia fluviatilis. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 131(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3354/dao03280
Roe, D., Leader-Williams, N., & Dalal-Clayton, B. (1997). Take Only Photographs, Leave Only Footprints: The Environmental Impacts of Wildlife Tourism. Wildlife and Development Series No.10. International Institute for Environment and Development.
Ruschmann, D. V. M. (2001). Turismo e Planejamento Sustentável: a proteção do meio ambiente. 7. ed. Papirus.
Santos, R. S. (2017). Prevalência da infecção por Citomegalovírus no Brasil e na região metropolitana de Manaus. MSc diss., Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Manaus.
Santos, S. R., & Santos, P. C. (2011). Área de Proteção Ambiental do Maracanã em São Luís (Maranhão, Brasil): aspectos socioambientais e o desenvolvimento local na atividade turística. Turismo & Sociedade, 4(1), 71-90. https://doi.org/10.5380/tes.v4i1.21383
Scarpaci, C., & Dayanthi, N. (2003). Compliance with regulations by “swim-with-dolphins” operations in Port Philip Bay, Victoria, Australia. Environmental Management, 31(3), 342–347. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-002-2799-z
Sharif, A., Godil, D. I., Xu, B., Sinha, A., Khan, S. A. R., & Jermsittiparsert K. (2020). Revisiting the role of tourism and globalization in environmental degradation in China: Fresh insights from the quantile ARDL approach. Journal of Cleaner Production, 272, 122906. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122906
Silva-Jr, J. M. (2017). Turismo de Observação de Mamíferos Aquáticos: benefícios, impactos e estratégias. Revista Brasileira de Ecoturismo, 10(2), 433–465. https://doi.org/10.34024/rbecotur.2017.v10.6614
Sobroza, T. V., Gordo, M., Barnett, A. P. A., Boubli, J. P., & Spironello, W. R. (2021). Parapatric pied and red-handed tamarin responses to congeneric and conspecific calls. Acta Oecologica, 110, 103688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actao.2020.103688
Song, Z., Yue, R., Sun, Y., Liu, C., Khan, S. H., Li, C., Zhao, Y., Zhou, X., Yang, L., & Zhao, D. (2017). Fatal bacterial septicemia in a bottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncatus caused by Streptococcus iniae. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 122, 195–203. https://doi.org/10.3354/dao03069
Staczek, J. (1990). Animal Cytomegaloviruses. Microbiological Reviews, 54(3), 247–65. https://doi.org/10.1128/mr.54.3.247-265.1990
Stevenson, P. R., Defler, T. R., De La Torre, S., Moscoso, P., Palacios, E., Ravetta, A. L., Vermeer, J., et al. (2021). Lagothrix lagothricha. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021: e.T160881218A192309103. Accessed 13 January 2023. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T160881218A192309103.en
Tang, Z., Bai, S., Shi, C., Liu, L., & Li, X. (2018). Tourism-Related CO2 Emission and Its Decoupling Effects in China: A Spatiotemporal Perspective. Advances in Meteorology, 2018, 1473184. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/1473184
Tortato, F. R., Ribas, C., Concone, H. V. B., & Hoogesteijn, R. (2021). Turismo de observação de mamíferos no Pantanal. Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi. Ciências Naturais, 16(3), 351–370. https://doi.org/10.46357/bcnaturais.v16i3.814
USFWS – United States Fish & Wildlife Service. (2017). 2016 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-Associated Recreation. Accessed 15 January 2023. https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2018/demo/fhw16-nat.pdf
Valsecchi, J., Marmontel, M., Franco, C. L. B., Cavalcante, D. P., Cobra, I. V. D., Lima, I. J., Lanna, J. M., et al. (2017). Atualização e composição da lista – Novas Espécies de Vertebrados e Plantas na Amazônia 2014-2015. WWF; IDSM.
Van Der Duim, R., Ampumuza, C., & Ahebwa, W. M. (2014). Gorilla Tourism in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda: An Actor-Network Perspective. Society & Natural Resources, 27(6), 588–601. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2014.901459
Vidal, M. D., Santos, P. M. C., Jesus, J. S., Alves, L. C. P. S., & Chaves M. P. S. R. (2017). Ordenamento participativo do turismo com botos no Parque Nacional de Anavilhanas, Amazonas, Brasil. Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi Ciências Naturais, 12(1), 23–36. https://doi.org/10.46357/bcnaturais.v12i1.403
Vidal, M. D., Santos, P. M. C., Chaves, M. P. S. R., & Swett, R. (2021a). Challenges and advances in the planning of tourism with Amazon River dolphins in the Brazilian Amazon. In: S. A. R. Khan (Ed.), Tourism (1–16). 1 ed. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93894
Vidal, M. D., Santos, P. M. C., Chaves, M. P. S. R., Moreira, J. C., & Burns, R. C. (2021b). Understanding the factors that influence visitor perceptions regarding tourism with Amazon River dolphins in Anavilhanas National Park, Amazonas, Brazil. Revista Hospitalidade, 18(2), 173–196. https://www.revhosp.org/hospitalidade/article/view/950
Vidal, M. D., Paim, F. P., & Mamede, S. (2022). Diversidade, desafios e potencialidades do turismo com mamíferos na Amazônia brasileira. Revista Brasileira de Ecoturismo, 15, 157–179. https://doi.org/10.34024/rbecotur.2022.v15.12316
WDPA – World Database on Protected Area. (2023). Brazil Protected Areas. Accessed 15 January 2023. https://www.protectedplanet.net/country/BRA
Wearing, S., & Neil, J. (2014). Ecoturismo: impactos, potencialidades e possibilidades. 2 ed. Manole.
Copyright (c) 2024 Turismo: Visão e Ação
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Turismo: Visão e Ação, linked to the Graduate Program in Tourism and Hospitality - Master's and Ph.D., is a scientific journal published in a continuous flow system, with an interdisciplinary and international scope. According to Qualis/CAPES criteria (2017-2020), it is classified as 'A3' in the fields of Administration, Accounting Sciences, and Tourism. Registered with ISSN number 1983-7151, Tourismo: Visão e Ação began its activities in 1998 with printed publications in English and Portuguese. In 2008, it transitioned to an online publication, expanding its reach to a broader audience. It maintains a policy of being an open-access journal without submission or access fees. The abbreviated title for the journal is Tur., Visão e Ação, commonly used in bibliographies, footnotes, references, and bibliographic captions.
Universidade do Vale do Itajaí- Quinta Avenida, 1100, bloco 7, CEP: 88337-300, Balneário Camboriú, SC – Brasil. Tel.: +55 47 3261-1315, e-mail: revistaturismo@univali.br
